ACESSO À SAÚDE POR PESSOAS TRANS NA ÁFRICA DO SUL: DISCRIMINAÇÃO DE GÊNERO, VIOLAÇÕES DE DIREITOS HUMANOS E O PAPEL DO SISTEMA AFRICANO DE DIREITOS HUMANOS
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.47820/jht.v1i4.25Palavras-chave:
África do Sul, direitos humanos, transgênero, discriminação, acesso, SaúdeResumo
Pessoas LGBTQIA, em todo o mundo, vivenciam violência, discriminação e violação de direitos quase que diariamente. No campo dos direitos humanos e da saúde, mais especificamente, as pessoas trans têm vulnerabilidades de saúde únicas e enfrentam mais violações de direitos, humilhação pública e violência institucional ao tentar navegar por um sistema de saúde essencialmente cisgênero. Por conta disso, esta pesquisa visa explorar o direito das pessoas trans ao acesso aos cuidados de saúde na África do Sul e possíveis remédios no sistema africano de direitos humanos. A metodologia empregada consiste em uma breve revisão da literatura, um projeto qualitativo baseado em múltiplas fontes e raciocínio teórico incorporado no quadro mais amplo dos direitos humanos, mais especificamente uma 'abordagem baseada em direitos humanos' para cuidados de saúde. O objetivo é empregar uma abordagem inovadora baseada nos direitos humanos para o acesso à saúde e analisar quais responsabilidades internacionais a República da África do Sul tem em relação aos direitos à saúde das pessoas transexuais. As vantagens e os limites da adjudicação internacional e da defesa em nome das pessoas trans no sistema africano também são discutidos.
Downloads
Referências
ActionAid USA (2021). Campaigning for LGBTQI Rights in South Africa. Retrieved 2 October 2021, from https://www.actionaidusa.org/work/campaigning-lgbtqi-rights-south-africa/.
African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights (2014). 275 Resolution on Protection against Violence and other Human Rights Violations against Persons on the basis of their real or imputed Sexual Orientation or Gender Identity. Retrieved 7 August 2021, from https://www.achpr.org/sessions/resolutions?id=322.
American Psychological Association (2011). Answers to your questions about transgender people, gender identity, and gender expression. Retrieved 2 September 2021 from http://www.apa.org/topics/lgbt/transgender.aspx.
Andia, T., & Lamprea, E. (2019). Is the judicialization of health care bad for equity? A scoping review. International Journal for Equity in Health, 18(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-019-0961-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-019-0961-y
Ansolabehere, K. (2016). One norm, two models. Legal enforcement of human rights in Mexico and the United States. Mexican Law Review, 8(2), 115-146. Retrieved 2 October 2021, from http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1870-05782016000100115&lng=es&tlng=en. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mexlaw.2016.07.004
Arcus Foundation (2019). Data Collection and Reporting on Violence Perpetrated Against LGBTQI Persons in Botswana, Kenya, Malawi, South Africa, and Uganda. Retrieved 20 June 2021, from https://www.arcusfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Iranti-Violence-Against-LGBTQI-Persons-in-Botswana-Kenya-Malawi-South-Africa-Uganda.pdf.
Ausderan, J. (2014). How naming and shaming affects human rights perceptions in the shamed country. Journal of Peace Research, 51(1), 81–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343313510014 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343313510014
Ayeni, V. (2019). The African Human Rights Architecture: Reflections on the Instruments and Mechanisms within the African Human Rights System. Beijing Law Review, 10(02), 302-316. https://doi.org/10.4236/blr.2019.102019 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4236/blr.2019.102019
Baptiste-Roberts, K., Oranuba, E., Werts, N., & Edwards, L. (2017). Addressing Health Care Disparities Among Sexual Minorities. Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America, 44(1), 71-80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ogc.2016.11.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ogc.2016.11.003
Biehl, J., Socal, M., & Amon, J. (2016). The Judicialization of Health and the Quest for State Accountability: Evidence from 1,262 Lawsuits for Access to Medicines in Southern Brazil. Health Hum Rights, 18(1), 209–220. Retrieved 2 October 2021, from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27781011/
Brett, P. (2020). Human Rights and the Judicialisation of African Politics (1st ed.). Oxon: Routledge.
Busetto, L., Wick, W., & Gumbinger, C. (2020). How to use and assess qualitative research methods. Neurological Research and Practice, 2(14), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42466-020-00059-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s42466-020-00059-z
Carroll, A. (2010). Make It Work: Six steps to effective LGBT human rights advocacy. Brussels: The European Region of the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans & Intersex Association (ILGA).
Christenson, G.A. (1991). Attributing Acts of Omission to the State. Michigan Journal of International Law, 12(2), 312-370. Retrieved 1 October 2021, from: https://repository.law.umich.edu/mjil/vol12/iss2/2
Christianse, E. (2000). Ending the Apartheid of the Closet: Sexual Orientation in the South African Constitutional Process. N.Y.U. J. of International Law and Politics, 32, 997-1058. Retrieved 5 September 2021, from https://digitalcommons.law.ggu.edu/pubs/131/.
de Greef, K. (July 2, 2019). THE UNFULFILLED PROMISE OF LGBTQ RIGHTS IN SOUTH AFRICA. The Atlantic, Online. Retrieved 5 September 2021, from https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/07/southafrica-lgbtq-rights/593050/.
Evans, M., & Murray, R. (Eds.). (2002). THE AFRICAN CHARTER ON HUMAN AND PEOPLES’ RIGHTS: The System in Practice, 1986–2000. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ezennia, C. N. (2015). Access to Justice Mechanisms for Individuals and Groups under the African Regional Human Rights System: An Appraisal. African Journal of Legal Studies, 8(1-2), 115-144. https://doi.org/10.1163/17087384-12342058 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/17087384-12342058
Ferraz, O. (2016). Moving the Debate Forward in Right to Health Litigation. Health Hum Rights, 18(2), 265–268. Retrieved 2 October 2021, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5394994/
Franklin, J. C. (2015). Human Rights Naming and Shaming: International and Domestic Processes. In: Friman H.R. (eds) The Politics of Leverage in International Relations. Palgrave Studies in International Relations Series. London: Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137439338_3
Gender Dynamix. (2021). Advancing Transgender Human Rights. Retrieved 2 October 2021, from https://www.genderdynamix.org.za/.
Giblon, R., & Bauer, G. (2017). Health care availability, quality, and unmet need: a comparison of transgender and cisgender residents of Ontario, Canada. BMC Health Services Research, 17(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-017-2226-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-017-2226-z
Giorgi, M. S. (2012). The Human Right to Equal Access to Health Care (1st ed.). Rotterdam: Erasmus University Rotterdam.
Gupta, S., Imborek, K., & Krasowski, M. (2016). Challenges in Transgender Healthcare: The Pathology Perspective. Laboratory Medicine, 47(3), 180-188. https://doi.org/10.1093/labmed/lmw020 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/labmed/lmw020
Haynes, D. (2006). Client-Centered Human Rights Advocacy. NYLS Clinical Research Institute Paper No. 05/06-4. Retrieved 2 October 2021, from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=819264#.
Hernandez, G. (2014). The Judicialization of International Law: Reflections on the Empirical Turn. European Journal of International Law, 25(3), 919-934. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chu066 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chu066
Heyns, C., Padilla, D., & Zwaak, L. (2006). Comparação esquemática dos sistemas regionais de direitos humanos: uma atualização. Sur. Revista Internacional de Direitos Humanos, 3(4), 160-169. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1806-64452006000100010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S1806-64452006000100010
Hillebrecht, C. (2014). Domestic Politics and International Human Rights Tribunals: The Problem of Compliance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139628747
Hirschl, R. (2013). The Judicialization of Politics. Oxford Handbooks Online. Retrieved 2 October 2021, from https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199604456.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199604456-e-013.
HRW (2011). South Africa: LGBT Rights in Name Only?. Retrieved 19 June 2021, from https://www.hrw.org/news/2011/12/05/south-africa-lgbt-rights-name-only.
Izugbara, C., Bakare, S., Sebany, M., Ushie, B., Wekesah, F., & Njagi, J. (2020). Regional legal and policy instruments for addressing LGBT exclusion in Africa. Sexual and Reproductive Health Matters, 28(1), 99-112. https://doi.org/10.1080/26410397.2019.1698905 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/26410397.2019.1698905
Jesson, J., Matheson, L., & Lacey, F. (2011). Doing Your Literature Review? Traditional and Systematic Techniques. London: SAGE.
Jobson, G., Theron, L., Kaggwa, J., & Kim, H. (2012). Transgender in Africa: Invisible, inaccessible, or ignored?. SAHARA-J: Journal of Social Aspects of HIV/AIDS, 9(3), 160-163. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17290376.2012.743829 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17290376.2012.743829
Kang, M., Lessard, D., Heston, L. and Nordmarken, S. (2017). Introduction to Women, Gender, & Sexuality Studies. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Amherst.
Kerrigan, F. (2013). Getting to Rights: The rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex persons in Africa. The Danish Institute for Human Rights. Retrieved 7 August 2021, from https://gsdrc.org/document-library/getting-to-rights-the-rights-of-lesbian-gay-bisexual-transgender-and-intersex-persons-in-africa/.
Kufuor, K. O. (2010). The African Human Rights System: Origin and Evolution (1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230106543_1
LEXICO (2021). judicialize. Lexico. Oxford University. Retrieved 2 October 2021, from https://www.lexico.com/definition/judicialize.
London, L. (2008). What is a human-rights based approach to health and does it matter?. Health Hum Rights, 10(1), 65-80. Retrieved 19 June 2021, from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20845830/. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/20460088
Lord, J., Guernsey, K., Balfe, J., Karr, V., & deFranco, A. (2012). Human Rights. YES! Action and Advocacy on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Human Rights Center.
Luhur, W., Mokgoroane, L., & Shaw, A. (2021). Public Opinion of Transgender Rights in South Africa. UCLA School of Law - Williams Institute. Retrieved 5 September 2021, from https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/Public-Opinion-Trans-South-Africa-Jun-2021.pdf.
Luvuno, Z., Ncama, B., & Mchunu, G. (2019). Transgender population’s experiences with regard to accessing reproductive health care in Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa: A qualitative study. African Journal of Primary Health Care & Family Medicine, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.4102/phcfm.v11i1.1933 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4102/phcfm.v11i1.1933
Madeira, L., & Geliski, L. (2017). Judicialization of Human Rights and the Welfare State in Latin America: domestic and international courts. Conference: International Meeting on Law and Society. Retrieved 2 October 2021, from http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.34660.99207.
Massoud, M. (2003). The evolution of gay rights in South Africa. Peace Review, 15(3), 301-307. https://doi.org/10.1080/1040265032000130896. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1040265032000130896
Meer, T., & Müller, A. (2017). “They treat us like we’re not there”: Queer bodies and the social production of healthcare spaces. Health & Place, 45, 92-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2017.03.010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2017.03.010
Meyer, I., & Northridge, M. (2007). The Health of Sexual Minorities: Public Health Perspectives on Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Populations. New York: Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-31334-4
Moravcsik, A. (2000). The Origins of Human Rights Regimes: Democratic Delegation in Postwar Europe. International Organization, 54(2), 217-252. https://doi.org/10.1162/002081800551163 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/002081800551163
Müller, A. (2016). Health for All? Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and the Implementation of the Right to Access to Health Care in South Africa. Health Hum Rights, 18(2), 195–208. Retrieved 19 June 2021, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5395001/.
Müller, A. (2017). Scrambling for access: availability, accessibility, acceptability and quality of healthcare for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people in South Africa. BMC International Health and Human Rights, 17(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12914-017-0124-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12914-017-0124-4
Ngwena, C. (2000). The Recognition of Access to Health Care as a Human Right in South Africa: Is It Enough? Health and Human Rights, 5(1) 26-44. https://doi.org/10.2307/4065221 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/4065221
Notaro, S. (2020). Marginality and Global LGBT Communities: Conflicts, Civil Rights and Controversy. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22415-8
Nweze, C. C. (2007). Justifiability or Judicialization: Circumventing Armageddon Through the Enforcement of Socio-Economic Rights. African Yearbook of International Law Online, 15(1), 107-127. https://doi.org/10.1163/22116176-90000041 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/22116176-90000041
Nyeck, S., & Shepherd, D. (2019). The Economic Cost of LGBT Stigma and Discrimination in South Africa. UCLA School of Law - Williams Institute. Retrieved 5 September 2021, from https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/Impact-LGBT-Discrimination-South-Africa-Dec-2019.pdf.
OAU (1982). Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3 rev. 5, 21 I.L.M. 58. African (Banjul) Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights. Retrieved 23 September 2021, from https://www.achpr.org/legalinstruments/detail?id=49
OHCHR (2008). Fact Sheet No. 31. The Right to Health. Retrieved 23 September 2021, from https://www.refworld.org/docid/48625a742.html
OHCHR (2011). Manual on human rights monitoring. Chapter 31: Advocacy and intervention with the national authorities. Geneva: United Nations. Retrieved 2 October 2021, from: https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/Chapter31-24pp.pdf
OHCHR (2021). HIV/AIDS and Human Rights. Retrieved 1 October 2021, from https://www.ohchr.org/en/issues/hiv/pages/hivindex.aspx.
Onoria, H. (2021). The African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights and the exhaustion of local remedies under the African Charter. African Human Rights Law Journal, 3(1), 1-24. Retrieved 2 October 2021, from https://journals.co.za/doi/pdf/10.10520/EJC51973.
OUT (2021). Advocacy. Retrieved 2 October 2021, from https://out.org.za/advocacy/.
Pachankis, J., & Safren, S. (eds.). (2019). Handbook of Evidence- Based Mental Health Practice with Sexual and Gender Minorities. New York: Oxford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/med-psych/9780190669300.001.0001
Pillay, R. (2018). South Africa still hasn’t won LGBTQ+ equality. Here are 5 reasons why. World Economic Forum. Retrieved 5 September 2021, from https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/11/south-africa-road-to-lgbtq-equality/.
Ribeiro, L., & Hartmann, I. (2016). Judicialization of the Right to Health and Institutional Changes in Brazil. Revista de Investigações Constitucionais, 3(3), 35-52. https://doi.org/10.5380/rinc.v3i3.48160 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5380/rinc.v3i3.48160
Roberts, T., & Fantz, C. (2014). Barriers to quality health care for the transgender population. Clinical Biochemistry, 47(10-11), 983-987. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2014.02.009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2014.02.009
Safer, J., Coleman, E., Feldman, J., Garofalo, R., Hembree, W., Radix, A., & Sevelius, J. (2016). Barriers to healthcare for transgender individuals. Current Opinion in Endocrinology & Diabetes and Obesity, 23(2), 168-171. https://doi.org/10.1097/med.0000000000000227 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/MED.0000000000000227
Spencer, S., Meer, T., & Müller, A. (2017). “The care is the best you can give at the time”: Health care professionals’ experiences in providing gender affirming care in South Africa. PLOS ONE, 12(7), e0181132. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181132 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181132
Ssenyonjo, M. (2018). Responding to Human Rights Violations in Africa. International Human Rights Law Review, 7(1), 1-42. https://doi.org/10.1163/22131035-00701003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/22131035-00701003
Stevens, M. (2012). Transgender access to sexual health services in South Africa: findings from a key informant survey. Gender Dynamix. Retrieved 1 October 2021, from https://genderdynamix.org.za.www53.jnb2.host-h.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Transgender-access-to-sexual-health-services-in-South-Africa.pdf.
Sullivan, P., Phaswana‐Mafuya, N., Baral, S., Valencia, R., Zahn, R., & Dominguez, K. et al. (2020). HIV prevalence and incidence in a cohort of South African men and transgender women who have sex with men: the Sibanye Methods for Prevention Packages Programme (MP3) project. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 23(S6), 6-16. https://doi.org/10.1002/jia2.25591 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jia2.25591
Tasioulas, J. (2019). Saving Human Rights from Human Rights Law. Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, 52(4), 1167-1207. Retrieved 2 October 2021, from https://www.corteidh.or.cr/tablas/libro6-68.pdf.
Thoreson, R. (2014). Transnational LGBT Activism: Working for Sexual Rights Worldwide. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5749/minnesota/9780816692712.001.0001
UN Human Rights (2018). Your Health, Your Choice, Your Rights: International and Regional Obligations on Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights. Retrieved 20 June 2021, from https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/OHCHRFactsheetYourHealth.pdf.
Venter, L. (2021). LGBTQIA+ rights in South Africa. International Bar Association. Retrieved 5 September 2021, from https://www.ibanet.org/article/854B8E51-E931-403D-BDC3-1386B30F9591.
Viljoen, F. (2016). Norms, case law and practices of sexual orientation and gender identity in the African human rights system. In Centre for Human Rights, University of Pretoria (ed.), Ending Violence and other human rights violations based on sexual orientation and gender identity: A joint dialogue of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and United Nations. Republic of South Africa: Pretoria University Law Press.
W. Benedek et al. (2010). The role of regional human rights mechanisms. Directorate-General for External Policies of the Union. Retrieved 24 July 2021, from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/etudes/join/2010/410206/EXPO-DROI_ET(2010)410206_EN.pdf.
WHO (2017). Human rights and health. Retrieved 23 September 2021, from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/human-rights-and-health.
Wilson, D., Marais, A., De Villiers, A., Addinall, R., Campbell, M., & Unit, T. (2014). Transgender issues in South Africa, with particular reference to the Groote Schuur Hospital Transgender Unit. South African Medical Journal, 104(6), 449. http://dx.doi.org/10.7196/SAMJ.8392 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7196/SAMJ.8392
Winer, A. (2015). LEVELS OF GENERALITY AND THE PROTECTION OF LGBT RIGHTS BEFORE THE UNITED NATIONS GENERAL ASSEMBLY. William Mitchell Law Review, 41(1), 80-129. Retrieved 5 September 2021, from https://open.mitchellhamline.edu/facsch/265/.
Downloads
Publicado
Como Citar
Edição
Seção
Categorias
Licença
Copyright (c) 2022 Revista Saúde e Tecnologia - JHT
Este trabalho está licenciado sob uma licença Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Os direitos autorais dos artigos publicados pertecem à JHT, e seguem o padrão Creative Commons (CC BY 4.0), permitindo a cópia ou reprodução, desde que cite a fonte e respeite os direitos dos autores e contenham menção aos mesmos nos créditos. Toda e qualquer obra publicada na revista, seu conteúdo é de responsabilidade dos autores, cabendo a RECIMA21 apenas ser o veículo de divulgação, seguindo os padrões nacionais e internacionais de publicação.
